Iron Age II Domestic Pottery from Tell Halif

The author has adopted (and adapted as necessary) much of the technical terminology for classification of the pottery from the excellent handbook Ancient Pottery of Transjordan: An Introduction Utilizing Published Whole Forms by Ralph Hendrix, Philip Drey and J. Bjornar Storfjell (The Institute of Archaeology/Siegfried H. Horn Archaeological Museum, Berrien Springs, MI, 1996.) In this publication the authors made a serious, systematic effort to apply terminology with some precision to a field of study that to date has not reached consensus on many of its descriptive terms or its ways of presenting and interpreting ceramic data. Ancient Pottery of Transjordan (APTJ) has given us another starting point for reaching, or at least adopting, consistency and some precision in language about ceramics from the ancient world; we have consciously adapted our own descriptions to fit, as far as possible, the morphology and descriptive schemes presented in Ancient Pottery of Transjordan (APTJ.) Pottery Morphology In the body of this digital handbook, as noted above, the classification and description system developed by Hendrix, Drey, and Storfjell has been applied, with revisions and adaptations as noted. Essentially, their classification system of ancient pottery relies on the distinction between open and closed vessels, by which they mean fairly precise mathematical configurations. An open vessel, called technically a “bowl,” is one whose opening dimension is 50% or greater than the maximum diameter of the vessel (APOT 37.) Thus, for example, a vessel well-known to excavators of the Iron Age II period, such as the hemispherical bowl, represents this category readily. However, in the scheme developed by Hendrix, Drey, and Storfjell, and as mathematically determined, a large number of vessels not shaped like the hemispherical bowl also fall into the rather large, technical category “bowl.” They have listed the following “bowl forms:” basin, biconical bowl, carinated bowl, casserole, cooking pot, cup (cornet, cup, goblet, twin cups), footed bowl, hemispherical bowl, holemouth bowl, incense burner, krater, plate, platter (pan, platter), spouted bowl, sugar pot, V-shaped bowl, and vat (APOT 37.) On the other hand, jars and jugs (their second major category) comprise the closed forms, by which they mean a vessel whose minimum mouth/opening diameter is less than 50% of its maximum diameter. (N.B. while this definition would appear to include jugs as well as jars, the authors have opted to subdivide this second category of ancient vessels into jars and jugs, the latter distinguished by the presence of lip/rim structure (APOT 46), i.e., an adaptation of the lip/rim for pouring.) The category of jar includes a wide range of vessel shapes; Hendrix, Drey, and Storfjell list the following “jar forms”: amphora, amphoriskos, beer strainer, bottle (bottle, unguentarium), column jar, holemouth jar, pyxis, rhyton, spouted jar, storage jar, and sugar jar (APTJ 46.) Under their scheme, jug forms include alabastron, bottle (bottle, unguentarium) decanter, dipper juglet, flask (flask, pilgrim flask), lagynos, piriform juglet, and spouted jug (APTJ 51.) General definitions for each form under the main categories are suppled in the text and in the glossary of Ancient Pottery of Transjordan. And, of course, there are ceramic pieces that fall into neither of these two categories, such as ceramic lids, jar stands, and incense stands. The scheme has, nonetheless, the great benefit of adding a certain amount of precision to any discussion about pottery, because the terms are (more or less) tied to mathematical determinations, though, on the other hand, the authors yielded to traditional terminology in some instances by naming certain vessel shapes with functional terms rather than strictly morphological ones. Pottery size In addition to this general morphology with variations, Hendrix, Drey, and Storfjell also apply a		scheme of measurement to terms such as small, medium, large, shallow, deep, etc. Again they have applied mathematical values to these terms in their attempts to standardize language about ancient pottery. In the case of “bowls” a vessel is “very small” if its maximum diameter is less than 10 cm.; it is also “shallow” if its depth is less than 20% of its diameter. So, a bowl may have a diameter of 9.95 cm. and, depending on its depth, be either shallow (less than 20% of diameter), intermediate (20%-74.9% of diameter), deep (75%-100% of diameter), or very deep (greater than 100% of diameter.) Similar configurations for small (10-14.9 cm. diameter) shallow-very deep bowls, medium (15-24.9 cm. diameter) shallow-very deep bowls, large (25-75 cm. diameter) shallow to very deep bowls, and very large (greater than 75 cm. diameter) shallow to very deep bowls (APOT 34.) Again, the benefit of this scheme is to render meaningful the descriptive terminology about size; shallow, a factor of diameter and depth, has a specific range. For jars and jugs a somewhat different set of measurements apply. Best described in terms of their height a jar (a vessel whose opening is less than 50% of its maximum diameter) may be very short (less than 15 cm.), short (15-24.9 cm.), tall (25-75 cm.), or very tall (greater than 75 cm.) (APOT 36.) Pottery manufacture Probably the most complex elements of pottery description are the terms used to describe the various parts of the vessel. Hendrix, Drey, and Storfjell have also proposed a standardization of terms for these components of pottery description, in order that a term (e.g., the term “curved” used in the description of a rim) will have approximately the same meaning and application from publication to publication. Since this component of Ancient Pottery of Transjordan is complex, and since not all of the terms fit the limited pottery repertoire from 8th c. BCE Tell Halif, only those terms that do apply will be used in this digital handbook; definitions will be supplied at the occurrence of each term. For example, if the description of a sherd refers to a flattened lip on an inverted rim, both terms (flattened and inverted) will be referenced to a glossary of terms for specific definitions. Hence, terms describing all of the “diagnostic” segments of a vessel will have been derived from the systematizing work by Hendrix, Drey, and Storfjell, or from adaptations of their work. Another element of the description of each vessel or sherd is the makeup of the ware, its manufacture, and any treatment of or on the vessel surfaces. This set of descriptions include the technique of manufacture (wheelmade, handmade, etc.), the color of the ware paste itself (using standardized Munsell descriptions; e.g., 5YR6/6 reddish yellow), inclusions in the ware paste by size and by quantity, the thoroughness of firing, hardness of the fired vessel, and treatment and color of interior and exterior surfaces. Each of these determinations follow patterns established by the Lahav Research Project for description of ceramic materials (see the Lahav Research Project Field Operations Guidebook, 3rd edition by Joe D. Seger, with additions by Paul F. Jacobs (Cobb Institute of Archaeology: 1992) Appendix 26). According to the LRP Field Operations Guidebook the analysis of each vessel or sherd will have the following components:

1. Technique:
According to technique of manufacture materials are described as:

		a. color–this means the color of the sherd section, color of the paste. Description is given in values of the 
		Munsell soil color code.

		b. Inclusions (temper)–inclusions are described according to type, size and frequency in terms of the 
		following categories:

			1.) Type–Sand. (To the naked eye these appear as sand-type grits. A sub-group of this category 
				involving larger particles may be noted as “wadi gravel.”)
				Limestone or Lime. (CaO, calcium oxide) To the naked eye these appear as white 
				chalky grits.)
				Ceram.-Ceramic particles or “grog.” (To the naked eye these are usually angular red 
				or black fragments of ceramic.)
				Crystl–Crystal. (SiO2, silicon dioxide) or quartz. (To the naked eye these appear as 
				angular translucent fragments.)
				Organic–Straw or shell fragments, etc. (To the naked eye evidence of straw grits often 
				remains only as patterns in the fabric or as carbon deposits.)
				Other–Miscellaneous types not included in the above.

			2.) Size–          Gezer Code				Wentworth Scale
				               (L) large 2-1 mm	             =     Very coarse
                                               (M) medium 1- ½  mm     =     Coarse
					       (S) small ½-1/4 mm	  =     Medium
					       (Ss) very small 1/4-0 mm	=     Fine

			3). Frequency–	few		=density below 15%
						some		=density between 15% and 30%
						many		=density between 30% and 50%
						very many	=density above 50%

		c. Firing–Because of variables in firing (i.e., faster and slower exposures with more or less 
		oxygen present, etc.) descriptions are given to represent only the darkness of the core indicating the 
		extent to which the carbon properties have been reduced. Four gradations are to be noted:

				Dark gray core
				Gray core
				Light gray core
				No core (Carbon reduction is complete)

		d. Hardness–The hardness of the paste fabric is described according to three gradiants:
				
										Moh’s scale
				soft–as the chalky paste, e.g.,			3
					of Chalcolithic materials

				hard–as most sherds				4-6

				metallic–as, e.g., base ring ware.		7
					Very hard ware that “clinks.”

2. Surface: 
		(Note: Descriptions in this category may pertain either to inner or 
		outer surfaces as relevant and as so indicated.  Where distinction is 
		not given, descriptions may be assumed to refer to both aike.)

		a. Color--Given via Munsell only if different from paste section.
				(N.B. In this CD rendering the color is repeated even if the same as the paste.)

		b. Treatment--The following classifications are used:

			Wash--Application of paste solution after firing. Color description
				is given via Munsell.

			Slip--Application of thin paste solution to surface of a vessel before 
				final firing . Color reference is given via Munsell only 
				if the color differs from the paste section or surface color 
				designations.

			Burnish--Smoothing of surface of a vessel during the drying process, often 
				by means of a hard tool such as a bone, pebble, shell, etc. This 
				process of "closing the pores" of a vessel is done just before 
				firing. Color is given via Munsell code.  The technique used in 
				the burnishing is described according to the following conventions:

				Chordal--crossed or fabric-like pattern of burnishing strokes,
				frequently along the chord of a vessel, on the inside bottom or on 
				base.

				Circular--Spiral or circular pattern of burnishing strokes 
				around or inside vessel.  Always horizontal; classified as hand-burnished 
				or wheel-burnished. Sample of circular burnish.

				Radial--Pattern of burnishing strokes radiating from a central
				focus.

				Continuous--Pattern of closely packed, continuous burnishing 
				strokes. May be clasified as vertical or horizontal burnishing.

				Random--Patternless burnishing strokes.  May be clasified as 
				vertical or horizontal burnishing.

				Polished--Burnishing so thoroughly applied that lustrous, 
				overall polish results, in which burnish strokes do not show as 
				distinct marks.

			Paint--application of a slip to which pigmentation has been added; often 
				applied in patterns or designs. Color is given via Nunsell code. Type 
				classification is given as follow:

				Oxide--Inorganic paints applied in suspension, occasionally 
				forming a raised coating on the vessel.

				Organic--Soluble paints presenting no relief on the vessel 
				surface.

		c. Other miscellaneous treatments of surface

				Combing--pattern of regularly spaced, fine lines incised into 
				the vessel surface.

				Incising--Decoration (other than combing) incised in the surface
				of a vessel.

				Molding--Relief designs applied through molding to the vessel surface 
				(as often on mold-made pottery.)

				Knife-paring--Shaving of excess clay from the vessel with a 
				knife prior to firing.

				Applique--Relief design in clay applied secondarily to the vessel 
				surface.

				Stamping--Impressing with a patterned stamp of the leather-hard 
				clay of a vessel prior to firing.
				
				Rouletting--A stamped design rolled with a patterned wheel 
				onto the leather-hard clay of a vessel prior to firing.

				Cross-wiping--Wet-smoothing of the pre-fired clay of a vessel 
				with a rough cloth, producing a "basket-weave" effect in the clay.